In general, Tanzania‟s agricultural sector faces a plethora of challenges, among which are the following:
i. Overdependence on rain-fed production;
ii. Poor availability of infrastructure to support production and distribution;
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iii. Inadequate provision (in terms of numbers, skills and facilities) for extension services;
iv. Erratic use of scientific farming technologies with over 70 percent of farming activities relying on the traditional hand hoe;
v. Lack or inappropriate agricultural financing mechanisms;
vi. Low and erratic farm gate prices;
vii. High cost and poor logistical arrangements for inputs supply, which always translate into untimely input supplies;
viii. Limited investment in R&D, leading to a small proportion of smallholder farmers using improved crop varieties and livestock breeds;
ix. Minimal participation in the agricultural value addition chain;
x. Non-availability of publicly owned land parcels for agricultural development investment promotion;
xi. Poor land use planning, leading to competing use and encroachments of human settlements and urbanisation over arable agricultural land; and
xii. Growing adverse effects of climate change.
Livestock: With 4.6 percent, livestock ranks second within the agricultural sector in terms of its contribution to GDP, followed by forestry (and hunting) with a GDP contribution of about 2.3 percent. Although there has been no other formal livestock census conducted since 1984, livestock population has been increasing over the years. The estimated 2010 official statistical data reveals that, there are 19.2 million cattle; 13.7 million goats and 3.6 million sheep. Other livestock kept in the country include 1.8 million pigs, and 58.1 million chickens, out of which, 23 million are „improved‟ chickens, and 35 million are indigenous poultry. Out of the 23 million „improved‟ chickens, 7 million are layers and 16 million are broilers. These estimates are based on sample censuses conducted in 1994/95, 1998/99 and 2002/03, as well as on the extrapolation of the 2002/03 D

TED 501 2013: ted 501 presentation

TED 501 2013: ted 501 presentation

diversity students

ACTIVITY 3.1

Diverse students are students from different socio- economic, cultural, development and having different personality, interest and others in the classroom for learning. Teaching diverse children, teacher should make sure that the subject contents, relate with learner’s ability and experience, method of teaching, theory of teaching, teaching and learning material also subject content should reflect the need of society. On teaching and learning process teacher should not consider the religion, gender of students, and amount of money their parents may have so that teacher should expect to be treated with all the respect that any human being should receive.

Also teacher should follow the principle of teaching like proceed from simple to complex, concrete to abstract, general to particular, known to unknown. The teacher should be aware with the cultural background of learners in the process of teaching in order to solve the problem easily.

ACTIVITY3.2

Successful: Teacher should teach them thinking, problem solving, and skills. Teacher should encourage their students how to avoid the problems in order to maintain their school academic performance. The teacher should provide complex and challenging tasks.

 Social: To help them understand what they are learning. Teacher should change behavior of the students to keep busy for giving them quiz, assignment and provides a kind of reinforcement to the students in order to reach good goal.

Alienated: To maximize heterogeneous or mixed academic grouping. Teacher should use the group discussion to make each student to participate in assignment, quiz in order to be active in learning process. Teacher should provide motivation to be closed with learners.

Dependent: To provide individual help, teacher should make sure each student is fit in emotion, mental and physical. In order the teaching and learning process to be successful to the student. So that teacher must encourage student to be independent by giving them individual assignment.

Phantom: To respect each student background culture and language. Teacher should relating the subject content with culture of learners, language used to teach, to respect each student also teacher may use participatory method like group discussion in order the students to be active in learning process. Provide group assignment in order to help to socialize with others so as to boast his or her self esteem. The teacher should pick the kind of student to present the work provided.

ACTIVITY 3.3

Children from rich family or high socio-economic status may perform well in academic issues compared to the children from low socio-economic status due to the sense that those from low economic status spend less time in academic matters, they account problems like lack of food, academic resources, lack of security and control of their life and the drop-out rate of these students is very high. It is better to understand that, poverty does not present just a single problem; poverty multiplies its impact on school performance such as to grow up in environments plagued by infectious illness like whooping cough and tuberculosis, come to school so tired and hungry that they cannot concentrate much on academic compared to those of high socio-economic status. On the other hand those who come from high social economic status, if they miss intrinsic motivation in academic matters and engaging themselves in bad behavior of using their money negatively likes drug abuse, play with their phones and laptop can score low performance.

The differences which are seen to the students with different cultural back grounds are poor cooperation in which most of them they fail to interact with others because they are feeling weak, due to their historical background and they  think that they have no  any contribution to their  and others  groups. Also they are feeling weak due to the sub-culture, they come from due to language differences, they tend to segregate each other by thinking that one`s sub-culture is better or superior than other. In order to be successful in classroom, you need to increase aware of the cultural variations among your students and especially on the differences within their subcultures.

The difference in teaching majority is that when teacher teaches this kind of group it is easy to create subject content because the majority students are showing common culture, also the school policy, curriculum and instruction normally reflect majority students than minority students. White in teaching minority students, teacher should be increasingly aware of the cultural variations among the students and especially the differences within subcultures.

The difference between teaching boys and girls are depending on the type of subject. For example science subject like physics, chemistry, mathematic and others teacher should give girls more attention and reinforcement for encourage them in learning process in order to be active learner in science subjects, this is because by nature boys receive more attention, disapproval and blame while girls tend to be punished more promptly for aggressive behavior such as calling out answers without first being acknowledged.

 Developmentally in self-esteem the students. The students are differing developmentally on the gender, age, experience, personality and briefs.

 The special needs kids’ teacher should provide for their social and emotional needs encourage creativity in thinking and expression and move them through the curriculum at a quicker pace. In order to archive in the special needs kids Teacher should include learning developmental, communication, behavioral also recognize disorders and are taught how to help children manage or overcome.

The differ in learning ability teacher should give students opportunity to interact with others of similar latent, give them to pursue individual interests, expand their time to need and explore for give them more complex and challenging tasks also teacher should use difference  methods and technique of teaching in order to satisfy the different ability of the students.

In all differences affect teaching, teacher should recognize the diversity whether economic, cultural gender, motivational or others and tale it into account. Teacher should well advise to discover who they are and accept them as they are in class. In classroom teacher should use difference methods of teaching, technique of teaching and learning materials in order to satisfy the students’ diversity.  

ACTIVITY   3.4

Socio economic differences students are coming from different families with different socio economic status of their students and to be willing to work with them so teacher must accept to teach or to work in different area due to their economic status.

Cultural differences in the group of people who store things such as language, values, traditions and ways of doing things when a teacher comes into teaching process most consider the culture of the particular society. Don`t teach things which hinder their cultural practices example when to teach in Masai society do not tell them that  it is better to leave on keeping cattle and deal with education matters if will be against their culture so teachers should accept culturally practices.

 Gender differences in this people they have different perception about gender for example many societies believe that boys are active in school than girls. So we as a teacher always promoting equal gender opportunity to our students without discriminating them according to their gender for example teacher putting more emphasize or effort to the boys and less effort girls. Teachers should avoid this situation. Also establishment of simple sex school in order to help girls to pay more attention with subjects

 Sexual preferences we should be aware especially if we tech adolescents, for those in your care may have concerns about sexual orientation. Teacher should make sure that his or her students have aware about sexual react less. It is important to discuss sexuality even with elementally students.

 Personality differences as the totality of character behavioral traits peculiar to an individual. You as a teacher should be a modal to your students in order to develop their good personality make sure that you provide students with experiences that may help them to develop positive personality.

Developmental differences students differ developmentally across and within age groups. When you teach must select theory of development which related with age of the children for example when you teach young children in preschool allow them to be free in playing also in secondary students assisting them to consider who they are accepting their appearances reflex on their sex roles, and explore and confirm occupational choice.

Learning style differences, different students prefer to lesson different subject other like science subject and other like arts subject as well as how their prefer to learn some like to learn on our own while others enjoy learning in the companies of other. In order to be effective most provide many different kinds of learning activities in classroom.                                                                                        

Interest differences, each student brings his or her interest to the classroom, we as a teacher try to meet the interest of the learners also children or student achieve different mostly because they have different interest. Teacher should support students working within academic or vocational areas they enjoy also teacher should determine the true interest of students for example student are interest with mathematic allow to do it and encourage them to do so.

Learning aptitude differences .We all differ in our aptitude or potential to learn and do different things  some of us have high aptitude for language [speaking, reading, writing] As a teachers we need to be aware of the different kinds of strengths students have to be committed when you teach gifted and talented teacher should identified those students. As we teacher give them opportunity to interact with other also give them more complex challenges tasks encourage them to be creative and allow them to pursue individual interest.

Learning disabilities. Learning disabled individuals have in common  that there a gap between their ability  and their achievement teacher should leaner more about learning disability give student more time to finish work or test, also teacher should teach organizational skills, study skills and learning strategies these will help all student but particularly helpful to those with learning disabilities.

            WANANCHI TUKIWA NA UMOJA TUTAJENGA TANZANIA YENYE MAENDELEO

MIKABALA YA FONOLOJIA

DONDOO UTANGUIZI • Maana ya Fonolojia KIINI • Mikabala mbalambali ya kifonolojia HITIMISHO MAREJELEO Kietimolojia, neno Fonolojia limetokana na maneno mawili ya Kigiriki ambayo ni foni au phone na logos. Foni likiwa na maana ya sauti au uneni na logos inamaanisha stadi au taaluma ya lugha mahususi. Taaluma hii inajikita katika kushughulikia hasa sauti zile ambazo hutumika katika kutofautisha maana za maneno katika lugha mahususi. Fonolojia ni tawi la isimu ambalo hujishughulisha na uchunguzi, uchambuzi na uainishaji wa sauti pambanuzi ambazo hutumika katika mifumo mbalimbali ya sauti za binadamu.(Maganga, 1980) Fonolojia ni tawi la isimu ambalo hushughulikia uchambuzi wa mfumo wa sauti zinazotumiwa katika mfumo fulani. (TUKI, 1990) Fonolojia ni tawi la isimu ambalo hujishughulisha na uchunguzi, uchambuzi na uainishaji wa sauti pambanuzi ambazo hutumika katika mifumo mbalimbali ya sauti za lugha ya binadamu.(Massamba na wenzake, 2004) Fonolojia ni utanzu wa isimu unaochunguza jinsi sauti za lugha zinavyofanya kazi katika lugha mbalimbali. Fonolojia hushughulikia jinsi sauti hizi zinavyotumika, zinavyounganishwa na kupangwa katika lugha yoyote mahsusi ili kuunda tungo zenye maana. (Habwe na Kalanje, 2004) Kwa ujumla Fonolojia ni taaluma ya isimu ya lugha inayoshughulikia sauti za lugha husika kwa kuchunguza mahusiano na maathiriano ya sauti hizo. Katika Fonolojia kuna mikabala mbalimbali ambayo hujishughulisha na uchanganuzi wa sauti za lugha mahususi, mikabala hiyo ni kama vile Fonolojia arudhi(vipande sauti), Fonolojia asilia zalishi, Fonolojia zalishi, Fonolojia mizani, Fonolojia vipande sauti, Fonolojia vipande sauti huru, Fonolojia leksika na Fonolojia asilia. Fonolojia arudhi ni mkabala wa Fonolojia ambao hushughulikia sauti za binadamu ambazo hubainishwa kwa vipashio au vipengele kama vile toni, kidatu, kiimbo, shada, mkazo, lafudhi na nyingine. Mkazo ni utamkaji wa nguvu zaidi katika sehemu ya neno au fungu la maneno. Utamkaji huu wa nguvu hufanywa katika silabi, hivyo silabi inayotamkwa kwa mkazo ina msikiko mkubwa zaidi kuliko silabi nyingine za neno hilo hilo. Mkazo pia huweza kutumika kubainisha maana tofauti za maneno hasa yale maneno yanayofanana kimaumbo mfano neno ‘barabara’ Baraba′ra (njia kuu) bara′bara (sawa sawa au sawa kabisa) Pia zipo lugha nyingine duniani ambazo zina jozi za maneno zinazotofautishwa kwa mkazo tu. Mfano, katika lugha ya Kirusi neno ‘zamok’ laweza kuwa na maana mbili. Zamok (hekalu) Za’mok (kufuli) Kiimbo ni utaratibu maalumu wa upandaji na ushukaji mawimbi ya sauti katika usemaji wa lugha. (Massamba na wenzake, 2004). Kiimbo pia ni sifa inayobainika katika sentensi nzima na wala si katika neno kama ilivyo katika toni. Kiimbo kinatusaidia kubaini lengo la msemaji kama anatoa maelezo, anauliza swali, anatoa amri au mshangao. Mfano, Baba atafika leo. (maelezo) Baba atafika leo? (swali) Baba atafika leo! (mshangao) Ondokeni hapa. (amri) Pia katika Fonolojia arudhi kuna silabi ambazo ni kipashio cha kifonolojia kinachohusu matamshi ambacho sauti za lugha hutamkwa mara moja kwa pamoja kama fungu moja linalojitegemea kimatamshi. Muundo wa silabi hubainishwa katika lugha mbalimbali. Mfano, Kiswahili neno (analima)- $a$$na$$li$$ma$ Kinyiha (akulya)- $a$$ku$$lya$ Kingoni (iheka)- $i$$he$$ka$ Lafudhi ni sifa ya kimasikizi ya matamshi ya mtu binafsi ambayo humpa msemaji utambulisho fulani ama wa jamii au kieneo. Lafudhi hujitokeza katika lugha mbalimbali. Mfano, Hero rafiki (msemaji atakuwa Mmasai) Usirete matata mura (msemaji atuwa kutoka Mara) Ninunuliepo ndisi (Mnyakyusa) Mtakuja muje (msemaji atakuwa Mnyiha) Fonolojia asilia zalishi ni mkabala mwingine wa Fonolojia ambao husisitiza zaidi mfumo wa sauti za lugha asilia. Katika kuchunguza mfumo wa sauti asilia husisitiza zaidi muundo wa ndani na muundo wa nje wa lugha asilia. Mfano wa sauti za lugha za asilia ni ule ambao haujafanyiwa uyeyushaji,udondoshaji na zingine. (Massamba, 1996:160) Mfano, umbo la ndani umbo la nje Mu+alimu Mwalimu Mu+ezi Mwezi Mu+aka Mwaka Fonolojia leksika ni mkabala wa kifonolojia ambao hujikita katika kushughulikia neno zima katika uchanganuzi wake. Mkabala huu hauangalii silabi moja au mofimu zinazounda neno hilo bali huangalia neno kwa ujumla wake. Mfano, njoo, ndizi, njia, ndama Maneno haya ukivunjavunja katika vipande sauti hayawezi kuleta maana. (Massamba, 1996:165) Fonolojia mizani ni mkabala wa kifonolojia ambao hujikita katika kushughulikia urefu baina ya silabi moja na nyingine katika utoaji wa sauti. Silabi moja yaweza kutamkwa kwa urefu tofauti mfano neno ‘Haleluya’, ‘Shikamoo’ Miongoni mwa wanaisimu walisawiri katika mkabala ni Levelt (1989), Liberman (1975) na Prince (1977). Pia katika makalaya “Ulemavu wa Usemi na Lugha” Chuo Kikuu Kenyatta, tarehe 24/7/2012.walibaini kuwa kigugumizi kinaweza kuongeza urefu wa silabi katika neno. Opentomatic.com/Sw/Fb/html 27/11/2012 13:05 Mfano neno ‘haleluya’ likitamkwa kwa kigugumizi huweza kusababisha urefu baina ya silabi. Fonolojia vipande sauti ni mkabala ambao hushughulikia uchanganuzi wa sauti za lugha asilia. Mfano, Kiswahili na siyo lugha zilizofanyiwa uundilizi kama vile lugha ya ‘Kiesperanto’. Pia katika mkabala huu huangalia vipashio vya Fonolojia, fonimu na alofoni. Vipande na vipamba sauti huwakilishwa katika mstari mmoja. Mfano, neno ‘amekuja’ linaweza kuwakilishwa kwa namna tofauti tofauti kwa kutumia alama za uandishi kama kiulizo, mshangao,nukta, kama inavyoonesha hapa chini. Amekuja? Amekuja! Amekuja. Fonolojia vipande sauti huru, hushughulikia vipande sauti na vipamba sauti ambavyo hujitegemea katika uwakilishi wake na siyo katika mstari mmoja kama ilivyo katika mkabala wa vipamba sauti. Mfano, Amefau′lu Wu′se Wuse′ Fonolojia zalishi ni mkabala ambao hushughulikia kanuni mbalmbali za kifonolojia na sheria za lugha za kimajumui, kila lugha ina muundo wa sauti za maneno na sentensi zake. Waasisi wa mkabala huu ni Vonnemann(1971-1974), Hooper(1975-1979) na Hudson (1975). Mfano katika lugha ya Kiswahili neno ‘lima’ linaweza kunyumbulishwa kama vile limisha, limiana, limia, limiwa, limwa. Pia katika lugha ya Kiingereza neno ‘produce’ laweza kunyumbulishwa kama vile produced, producer, production. Fonolojia asilia ni mkabala unaohusika zaidi katika lugha ya binadamu inayotumiwa katika shughuli mbalimbali ikiwemo mawasiliano kwa njia ya sauti zinazounda maneno. Waasisi wa mkabala huu ni David Stampe (1969-1973) ambaye ni wa kwanza kuelezea mkabala huu na baadaye alifuatia na mwasisi mwingine ambaye ni Patricia Donegan (1979). Lugha asilia hutofautiana sana na lugha nyingine kama vile lugha ya ishara ingawa nayo hutumiwa katika mawasiliano ya binadamu lakini haitumii sauti. Mfano, rota (kuota ndoto), kota (kuota moto). Mikabala ya kifonolojia katika lugha mbalimbali utusaidia katika matumizi ya lugha yoyote ile kwa kutambua msemaji anatoka wapi na ni nani, kujua asili ya maneno yaliyopo katika lugha ya Kiswahili na muundo wa maneno katika lugha. Hivyo hatuna budi kujifunza mikabala ya kifonolojia ambayo itatupa msingi mzuri katika matumizi ya lugha. MAREJELEO Habwe, J. na Karanje, P (2004), Misingi ya Sarufi ya Kiswahili, Phoenix Publishers Ltd, Nairobi Kipacha, A (2007), Utangulizi wa Lugha na Isimu, Chuo Kikuu cha Tanzania, Dar es Salaam Maganga,C (1980), Kiswahili Vyuoni, Taasisi ya Ukuzaji Mtaala, Dar es Salaam Massamba, D.P.B (1996), Phonological Theory: History and Development, Dar es Salaam University Press, Dar es Salaam Massamba na wenzake (2004), Fonolojia ya Kiswahili Sanifu: Sekondari na Vyuo(FOKISA), Taasisi ya Uchunguzi wa Kiswahili (TUKI), Dar es salaam Mgullu, R.S (1999), Mtalaa wa Isimu, Longhorn Publisher(U) Ltd, Kampala Opentomatic.com/Sw/Fb/html 27/11/2012 13:05 T UKI (1990), Kamusi Sanifu ya isimu na Lugha, Dar es Salaam University Press, Dar es Salaam